The Pre-Socratics-2
In this blog I will take a quick look at Indian Philosophy. Indian Philosophy may be classified into Orthodox and Heterodox. The former comprises of Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta. The Heterodox school comprises of Carvaka , Buddhist and Jain philosophies. So much for classification.
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Systems of Indian Philosophy |
Some Terminology
Lokayata : Indian Materialism. In its most generic sense, "Indian Materialism" refers to the school of thought within Indian philosophy that rejects supernaturalism. It is regarded as the most radical of the Indian philosophical systems. Mostly attributed to Carvaka,
Vedas : Ancient Indian Scriptures authored sometime between 800 B.C to 3000 B.C . There are four vedas Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda. These were transmitted from generation to generation orally (see below)
Each Veda has 1.Samhitas (mantras)
2.Aranyakas (prose)
3.Brahmanas (discussions and interpretations of ceremonies)
4.Upanishads
According to some 5.Upasanas
Each Veda has 1.Samhitas (mantras)
2.Aranyakas (prose)
3.Brahmanas (discussions and interpretations of ceremonies)
4.Upanishads
According to some 5.Upasanas
Shruti, ( Sanskrit: “What Is Heard”) in Hinduism, the most-revered body of sacred literature, considered to be the product of divine revelation. Shruti works are considered to have been heard and transmitted by earthly sages, as contrasted to Smriti, or that which is remembered by ordinary human beings.
Upanishads are more informal spiritual treatises considered Vedanta or the end of vedas or conclusion of vedas . There are some 200 upanishads and the most famous of these is Brhad-aranyaka Upanishad . They form part of the vedas but are not systematic expositions of philosophy.
They
were written after 700 B.C. and are on occasion more philosophical.
Śramaṇa (Sanskrit: श्रमण, Samaṇa in Pali) means "seeker, one who performs acts of austerity, ascetic"
Śramaṇa (Sanskrit: श्रमण, Samaṇa in Pali) means "seeker, one who performs acts of austerity, ascetic"
Generally used for Jain and Buddhist tradtions.
Puranas are a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian literature about a wide range of topics particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore. Several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.
Epics most famous of these are Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita (really a part of Mahabharata) Ramayana is read somewhat like the bible at home. Bhagavad Gita or Gita is popular in the courts. (swear in the name of Gita)
Several such as Vivekananda view Gita's war as an allegory. If war was an allegory then both Mahabharata and thereby Gita belong to the realm of fiction (perhaps inspired by some wars) rather than fact. Most however, believe Mahabharata and Ramayana to be historical and that the protagonists actually lived.
Pramāṇa (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, Pramāṇas) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".It refers to epistemology in Indian philosophies, and is one of the key, much debated fields of study in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
Darśana (Sanskrit: दर्शन, lit. theophany) is the auspicious sight of a deity or a holy person. The term also refers to six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy and their literature on spirituality and soteriology.
Puranas are a vast genre of encyclopedic Indian literature about a wide range of topics particularly myths, legends and other traditional lore. Several of these texts are named after major Hindu deities such as Vishnu, Shiva and Devi.
Epics most famous of these are Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Bhagavad Gita (really a part of Mahabharata) Ramayana is read somewhat like the bible at home. Bhagavad Gita or Gita is popular in the courts. (swear in the name of Gita)
Several such as Vivekananda view Gita's war as an allegory. If war was an allegory then both Mahabharata and thereby Gita belong to the realm of fiction (perhaps inspired by some wars) rather than fact. Most however, believe Mahabharata and Ramayana to be historical and that the protagonists actually lived.
Pramāṇa (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, Pramāṇas) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge".It refers to epistemology in Indian philosophies, and is one of the key, much debated fields of study in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.
Darśana (Sanskrit: दर्शन, lit. theophany) is the auspicious sight of a deity or a holy person. The term also refers to six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy and their literature on spirituality and soteriology.
Systems of Philosophy
All the schools agree that philosophy should help man in realizing the purusharthas.The four puruṣārthas are Dharma (righteousness, moral values), Artha (prosperity, economic values), Kāma (pleasure, love, psychological values) and Mokṣa (liberation, spiritual values).
All of them stress the ultimate goal of liberation of the individual through diverse range of spiritual practices (moksha, nirvana).
There is agreement among the different schools that the truth and reality should be verifiable. They should be substantiated with reasoning and experience. An experience may be sensory, conceptual or intuitional. Pramāṇa (Sanskrit: प्रमाण, Pramāṇas) literally means "proof" and "means of knowledge". It refers to epistemology in Indian philosophies. It is a theory of knowledge, and encompasses one or more reliable and valid means by which human beings gain accurate, true knowledge. It is accepted by all the schools that man’s suffering results from his ignorance. Man can conquer ignorance and attain total freedom (moksha) in this bodily existence. There is a general agreement on man’s essential spirituality
we need to understand that the active embodied person is alienated from its true identity, which is but reflexive static conscious subjectivity
Sāmkhya posits a dualism of souls and matter
There is an infinity of souls
(purus.a), which are self-contained and inactive self-aware conscious monads
whose true mode of existence is beyond space, time and matter
The other pole of the dualism is Primal Matter (pradhāna or mūla prakrti).
It is beginning less and ever-changing. The latter spontaneously transforms
itself (parināma) into the real cosmos of material and psychological phenomena.
The best we can say is that this just happens. There is no divinity initiating
or superintending the process.
Yoga: means union of the individual consciousness or soul with the Universal Consciousness or Spirit. It is also wrongly perceived as a system of asanas. The Yoga school, was expounded by Patanjali in his 2nd Century B.C. Yoga Sutras. Pranayama or control of breath forms the core of meditation in Hindu and Buddhist practice. Samkhya Yoga– Right Understanding, Bhakti Yoga or path of devotional bliss and Karma Yoga or path of blissful action are part of the Gita.
Nyaya : (Sanskrit: न्याय, ny-āyá), literally means "rules", "method" or "judgment". It is based on the Nyaya Sutras, written by Aksapada Gautama in the 2nd Century B.C. Nyaya developed several criteria by which the knowledge thus obtained was to be considered valid or invalid (equivalent in some ways to Western analytic philosophy) It is also the name of one of the six orthodox (astika) schools of Hinduism. This school's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy was systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, and its treatises on epistemology.
Nyaya school's epistemology accepts four out of six Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).
Vaisheshika : school was founded by Kanada in the 6th Century B.C., and it is atomist and pluralist in nature. The basis of the school's philosophy is that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms (anu). The atoms are put into motion by God’s will, through the unseen forces of moral merit and demerit.
The Vaisheshika school attempts to identify, inventory, and classify the entities and their relations that present themselves to human perceptions. It lists six/seven categories of being (padarthas).
Dravya, or substance, the substratum that exists independently of all other categories, and the material cause of all compound things produced from it. Dravyas are nine in number: earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, spirit, and mind.
Guna, or quality, which in turn is subdivided into 24 species.
Karma, or action. Both guna and karma inhere within dravya and cannot exist independently of it.
Samanya, or genus, which denotes characteristic similarities that allow two or more objects to be classed together.
Vishesha, or specific difference, which singles out an individual of that class.
Samavaya, or inherence, which indicates things inseparably connected.
Abhava, nonexistence or absence
Purva Mimamsa : Jaimini is credited as the chief proponent of the Mimamsa system. His glorious work is Mimamsa-Sutra written around the end of the 2nd century A.D. Mimamsa is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical investigation". Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā means earlier (part of Vedas). It developed and emphasized karma-kāṇḍa (study of ritual actions, early four Vedas), while the Vedānta schools (also known as Uttara-Mīmāṃsā) developed and emphasized jñana-kāṇḍa (study of knowledge and spirituality, later parts of Vedas, like the Upaniṣads). It requires unquestionable faith in the Vedas and the regular performance of the Vedic fire-sacrifices to sustain all the activity of the universe. The school later shifted its views and began to teach the doctrines of Brahman and freedom, allowing for the release or escape of the soul from its constraints through enlightened activity.
The system is a pluralistic realist. It endorses the reality of the world as well as that of the individual souls. The soul is accepted as an eternal and infinite substance. Consciousness is an accidental attribute of the soul. The soul is distinct from the body, the senses and the mind.
Vedanta : or Uttara Mimamsa, school concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads rather than the Brahmanas .The great scholar Badarayana or Ved Vyasa(?500-200 B.C) is the founder of this system . He was the first scholar to take up the challenging task of systematizing the immensely vast philosophical doctrines of the Upanishads. The result of his efforts was one of the most illustrious works on Vedanta. Badarayana’s work is known as Brahma-Sutra or Vedanta-Sutra. It is also referred to as Uttar-Mimamsa-Sutra. The Brahma-Sutra has 555 sutras. Most of them are aphoristic and almost unintelligible at first sight. Hence, a number of commentaries were written to interpret them.
Among these the commentaries of Shamkaracharya, Ramnujacharya and Madhavacharya are regarded authentic and are held in very high view. They are regarded as the greatest scholars of Indian philosophy. They are not only the principal commentators of Brahma-Sutra (Vedanta-Sutra) but are also its leading interpreters. Thus, we have three major schools of Vedanta based on the philosophy of the distinguished trio: Advaita(non-dualism which holds that the soul and Brahman are one and the same) of Shamkaracharya, Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism which teaches that the Supreme Being has a definite form, name - Vishnu - and attributes) of Ramnujacharya and Dvaita(dualism which holds that Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent) of Madhvacharya.
The Vedanta focus on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity, more than traditional ritualism.
Carvaka : Also known as Lokayata, Carvaka is a materialistic, sceptical and atheistic school of thought. Its founder was Carvaka, author of the Barhaspatya Sutras in the final centuries B.C., although the original texts have been lost and our understanding of them is based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools. Also known as Lokāyata and Bṛhaspatya, is the ancient school of Indian materialism. Charvaka holds direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, embraces philosophical skepticism and rejects Vedas, Vedic ritualism, and super-naturalism.
It is regarded as the most radical of the Indian philosophical systems. It rejects the existence of other worldly entities such an immaterial soul or god and the after-life. Its primary philosophical import comes by way of a scientific and naturalistic approach to metaphysics. Thus, it rejects ethical systems that are grounded in super-naturalistic cosmologies.
Buddhism : is a non-theistic system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, an Indian prince later known as the Buddha, in the 5th Century B.C. The question of God is largely irrelevant in Buddhism, and it is mainly founded on the rejection of certain orthodox Hindu philosophical concepts.
Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices.Practices of Buddhism include taking refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha, study of scriptures, observance of moral precepts, renunciation of craving and attachment, the practice of meditation (including calm and insight), the cultivation of wisdom, loving-kindness and compassion, the Mahayana practice of bodhicitta and the Vajrayana practices of generation stage and completion stage.
Buddhism advocates a Noble Eightfold Path to end suffering, and its philosophical principles are known as the Four Noble Truths (the Nature of Suffering, the Origin of Suffering, the Cessation of Suffering, and the Path Leading to the Cessation of Suffering). Buddhist philosophy deals extensively with problems in metaphysics, phenomenology, ethics and epistemology.
In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the sublime state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path (also known as the Middle Way), thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering and rebirth.Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon and Tiantai (Tendai), is found throughout East Asia. Rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a third branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Mongolia and Kalmykia. Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body.
The Buddha taught many things, but the basic concepts in Buddhism can be summed up by the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.
First Noble Truth Life is suffering i.e., life includes pain, getting old, disease, and ultimately death. We also endure psychological suffering like loneliness frustration, fear, embarrassment, disappointment and anger. This is an irrefutable fact that cannot be denied. It is realistic rather than pessimistic because pessimism is expecting things to be bad. lnstead, Buddhism explains how suffering can be avoided and how we can be truly happy.
Second Noble Truth is that suffering is caused by craving and aversion. We will suffer if we expect other people to conform to our expectation, if we want others to like us, if we do not get something we want,etc. In other words, getting what you want does not guarantee happiness. Rather than constantly struggling to get what you want, try to modify your wanting. Wanting deprives us of contentment and happiness. A lifetime of wanting and craving and especially the craving to continue to exist, creates a powerful energy which causes the individual to be born. So craving leads to physical suffering because it causes us to be reborn.
Third Noble Truth is that suffering can be overcome and happiness can be attained; that true happiness and contentment are possible. lf we give up useless craving and learn to live each day at a time (not dwelling in the past or the imagined future) then we can become happy and free. We then have more time and energy to help others. This is Nirvana.
Fourth Noble Truth is that the Noble 8-fold Path is the path which leads to the end of suffering.
Buddhism and Science Science is knowledge which can be made into a system, which depends upon seeing and testing facts and stating general natural laws. The core of Buddhism fit into this definition, because the Four Noble truths (see below) can be tested and proven by anyone in fact the Buddha himself asked his followers to test the teaching rather than accept his word as true. Buddhism depends more on understanding than faith.
Modern psychological theories confirm Buddhist Meditation practice as beneficial and the no soul or no CEO view.
Noble 8-Fold Path is being moral (through what we say, do and our livelihood), focussing the mind on being fully aware of our thoughts and actions, and developing wisdom by understanding the Four Noble Truths and by developing compassion for others.
Jain philosophy : central tenets of Jain philosophy were established by Mahavira in the 6th Century B.C., although Jainism as a religion is much older. A basic principle is anekantavada, the idea that reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is completely true (similar to the Western philosophical doctrine of Subjectivism).
The central tenet is non-violence and respect towards all living beings. The three main principles of Jainism are ahimsa (non-violence), anekantavada (non-absolutism) and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). Followers of Jainism take five main vows: ahimsa (non-violence), satya (not lying), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (chastity) and aparigraha (non-attachment). Jain monks and nuns observe these vows absolutely whereas householders (śrāvakas) observe them within their practical limitations. Self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism. Notably, Mahatma Gandhi was greatly influenced by Jainism and adopted many Jain principles in his life.
The word "Jain" derives from the Sanskrit word jina (conqueror). A human being who has conquered all inner passions like attachment, desire, anger, pride, greed, etc. is called Jina. Followers of the path practiced and preached by the jinas are known as Jains. Parasparopagraho Jivanam ("the function of souls is to help one another") is the motto of Jainism.
Jains trace their history through a succession of twenty-four teachers and revivers of the Jain path known as Tirthankaras. In the current era, this started with Rishabhdeva and concluded with Mahavira. Jains believe that Jainism is eternal and while it may be forgotten, it will be revived from time to time.
Jainism is an ancient religion from India that teaches that the way to liberation and bliss is to live lives of harmlessness and renunciation.The essence of Jainism is concern for the welfare of every being in the universe and for the health of the universe itself. Jains believe that animals and plants, as well as human beings, contain living souls. Each of these souls is considered of equal value and should be treated with respect and compassion. Jains are strict vegetarians and live in a way that minimises their use of the world's resources. Jains believe in reincarnation and seek to attain ultimate liberation - which means escaping the continuous cycle of birth, death and rebirth so that the immortal soul lives for ever in a state of bliss. Liberation is achieved by eliminating all karma from the soul.
Jainism is a religion of self-help.There are no gods or spiritual beings that will help human beings.The three guiding
principles of Jainism, the 'three jewels', are right belief, right knowledge and right conduct.The supreme principle of Jain living is non violence (ahimsa).This is one of the 5 mahavratas (the 5 great vows). The other mahavratas are non-attachment to possessions, not lying, not stealing, and sexual restraint (with celibacy as the ideal).
Mahavira is regarded as the man who gave Jainism its present-day form.
The texts containing the teachings of Mahavira are called the Agamas. Jainism has no priests. Its professional religious people are monks and nuns, who lead strict and ascetic lives.
Sankhya
Sām. khya is basically a non-theistic, world-renunciatory and gnostic outlook, rather than a religion for the person immersed in daily life and ritual religion.we need to understand that the active embodied person is alienated from its true identity, which is but reflexive static conscious subjectivity
Sāmkhya posits a dualism of souls and matter
There is an infinity of souls
(purus.a), which are self-contained and inactive self-aware conscious monads
whose true mode of existence is beyond space, time and matter
The other pole of the dualism is Primal Matter (pradhāna or mūla prakrti).
It is beginning less and ever-changing. The latter spontaneously transforms
itself (parināma) into the real cosmos of material and psychological phenomena.
The best we can say is that this just happens. There is no divinity initiating
or superintending the process.
Yoga: means union of the individual consciousness or soul with the Universal Consciousness or Spirit. It is also wrongly perceived as a system of asanas. The Yoga school, was expounded by Patanjali in his 2nd Century B.C. Yoga Sutras. Pranayama or control of breath forms the core of meditation in Hindu and Buddhist practice. Samkhya Yoga– Right Understanding, Bhakti Yoga or path of devotional bliss and Karma Yoga or path of blissful action are part of the Gita.
Nyaya : (Sanskrit: न्याय, ny-āyá), literally means "rules", "method" or "judgment". It is based on the Nyaya Sutras, written by Aksapada Gautama in the 2nd Century B.C. Nyaya developed several criteria by which the knowledge thus obtained was to be considered valid or invalid (equivalent in some ways to Western analytic philosophy) It is also the name of one of the six orthodox (astika) schools of Hinduism. This school's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy was systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, and its treatises on epistemology.
Nyaya school's epistemology accepts four out of six Pramanas as reliable means of gaining knowledge – Pratyakṣa (perception), Anumāṇa (inference), Upamāṇa (comparison and analogy) and Śabda (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).
Vaisheshika : school was founded by Kanada in the 6th Century B.C., and it is atomist and pluralist in nature. The basis of the school's philosophy is that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to a finite number of atoms (anu). The atoms are put into motion by God’s will, through the unseen forces of moral merit and demerit.
The Vaisheshika school attempts to identify, inventory, and classify the entities and their relations that present themselves to human perceptions. It lists six/seven categories of being (padarthas).
Dravya, or substance, the substratum that exists independently of all other categories, and the material cause of all compound things produced from it. Dravyas are nine in number: earth, water, fire, air, ether, time, space, spirit, and mind.
Guna, or quality, which in turn is subdivided into 24 species.
Karma, or action. Both guna and karma inhere within dravya and cannot exist independently of it.
Samanya, or genus, which denotes characteristic similarities that allow two or more objects to be classed together.
Vishesha, or specific difference, which singles out an individual of that class.
Samavaya, or inherence, which indicates things inseparably connected.
Abhava, nonexistence or absence
Purva Mimamsa : Jaimini is credited as the chief proponent of the Mimamsa system. His glorious work is Mimamsa-Sutra written around the end of the 2nd century A.D. Mimamsa is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical investigation". Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā means earlier (part of Vedas). It developed and emphasized karma-kāṇḍa (study of ritual actions, early four Vedas), while the Vedānta schools (also known as Uttara-Mīmāṃsā) developed and emphasized jñana-kāṇḍa (study of knowledge and spirituality, later parts of Vedas, like the Upaniṣads). It requires unquestionable faith in the Vedas and the regular performance of the Vedic fire-sacrifices to sustain all the activity of the universe. The school later shifted its views and began to teach the doctrines of Brahman and freedom, allowing for the release or escape of the soul from its constraints through enlightened activity.
The system is a pluralistic realist. It endorses the reality of the world as well as that of the individual souls. The soul is accepted as an eternal and infinite substance. Consciousness is an accidental attribute of the soul. The soul is distinct from the body, the senses and the mind.
Vedanta : or Uttara Mimamsa, school concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads rather than the Brahmanas .The great scholar Badarayana or Ved Vyasa(?500-200 B.C) is the founder of this system . He was the first scholar to take up the challenging task of systematizing the immensely vast philosophical doctrines of the Upanishads. The result of his efforts was one of the most illustrious works on Vedanta. Badarayana’s work is known as Brahma-Sutra or Vedanta-Sutra. It is also referred to as Uttar-Mimamsa-Sutra. The Brahma-Sutra has 555 sutras. Most of them are aphoristic and almost unintelligible at first sight. Hence, a number of commentaries were written to interpret them.
Among these the commentaries of Shamkaracharya, Ramnujacharya and Madhavacharya are regarded authentic and are held in very high view. They are regarded as the greatest scholars of Indian philosophy. They are not only the principal commentators of Brahma-Sutra (Vedanta-Sutra) but are also its leading interpreters. Thus, we have three major schools of Vedanta based on the philosophy of the distinguished trio: Advaita(non-dualism which holds that the soul and Brahman are one and the same) of Shamkaracharya, Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism which teaches that the Supreme Being has a definite form, name - Vishnu - and attributes) of Ramnujacharya and Dvaita(dualism which holds that Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent) of Madhvacharya.
The Vedanta focus on meditation, self-discipline and spiritual connectivity, more than traditional ritualism.
Carvaka : Also known as Lokayata, Carvaka is a materialistic, sceptical and atheistic school of thought. Its founder was Carvaka, author of the Barhaspatya Sutras in the final centuries B.C., although the original texts have been lost and our understanding of them is based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools. Also known as Lokāyata and Bṛhaspatya, is the ancient school of Indian materialism. Charvaka holds direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference as proper sources of knowledge, embraces philosophical skepticism and rejects Vedas, Vedic ritualism, and super-naturalism.
It is regarded as the most radical of the Indian philosophical systems. It rejects the existence of other worldly entities such an immaterial soul or god and the after-life. Its primary philosophical import comes by way of a scientific and naturalistic approach to metaphysics. Thus, it rejects ethical systems that are grounded in super-naturalistic cosmologies.
Buddhism : is a non-theistic system of beliefs based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, an Indian prince later known as the Buddha, in the 5th Century B.C. The question of God is largely irrelevant in Buddhism, and it is mainly founded on the rejection of certain orthodox Hindu philosophical concepts.
Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices.Practices of Buddhism include taking refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma and the Sangha, study of scriptures, observance of moral precepts, renunciation of craving and attachment, the practice of meditation (including calm and insight), the cultivation of wisdom, loving-kindness and compassion, the Mahayana practice of bodhicitta and the Vajrayana practices of generation stage and completion stage.
Buddhism advocates a Noble Eightfold Path to end suffering, and its philosophical principles are known as the Four Noble Truths (the Nature of Suffering, the Origin of Suffering, the Cessation of Suffering, and the Path Leading to the Cessation of Suffering). Buddhist philosophy deals extensively with problems in metaphysics, phenomenology, ethics and epistemology.
In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the sublime state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path (also known as the Middle Way), thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering and rebirth.Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.
Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon and Tiantai (Tendai), is found throughout East Asia. Rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a third branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Mongolia and Kalmykia. Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body.
The Buddha taught many things, but the basic concepts in Buddhism can be summed up by the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.
First Noble Truth Life is suffering i.e., life includes pain, getting old, disease, and ultimately death. We also endure psychological suffering like loneliness frustration, fear, embarrassment, disappointment and anger. This is an irrefutable fact that cannot be denied. It is realistic rather than pessimistic because pessimism is expecting things to be bad. lnstead, Buddhism explains how suffering can be avoided and how we can be truly happy.
Second Noble Truth is that suffering is caused by craving and aversion. We will suffer if we expect other people to conform to our expectation, if we want others to like us, if we do not get something we want,etc. In other words, getting what you want does not guarantee happiness. Rather than constantly struggling to get what you want, try to modify your wanting. Wanting deprives us of contentment and happiness. A lifetime of wanting and craving and especially the craving to continue to exist, creates a powerful energy which causes the individual to be born. So craving leads to physical suffering because it causes us to be reborn.
Third Noble Truth is that suffering can be overcome and happiness can be attained; that true happiness and contentment are possible. lf we give up useless craving and learn to live each day at a time (not dwelling in the past or the imagined future) then we can become happy and free. We then have more time and energy to help others. This is Nirvana.
Fourth Noble Truth is that the Noble 8-fold Path is the path which leads to the end of suffering.
Buddhism and Science Science is knowledge which can be made into a system, which depends upon seeing and testing facts and stating general natural laws. The core of Buddhism fit into this definition, because the Four Noble truths (see below) can be tested and proven by anyone in fact the Buddha himself asked his followers to test the teaching rather than accept his word as true. Buddhism depends more on understanding than faith.
Modern psychological theories confirm Buddhist Meditation practice as beneficial and the no soul or no CEO view.
Noble 8-Fold Path is being moral (through what we say, do and our livelihood), focussing the mind on being fully aware of our thoughts and actions, and developing wisdom by understanding the Four Noble Truths and by developing compassion for others.
Jain philosophy : central tenets of Jain philosophy were established by Mahavira in the 6th Century B.C., although Jainism as a religion is much older. A basic principle is anekantavada, the idea that reality is perceived differently from different points of view, and that no single point of view is completely true (similar to the Western philosophical doctrine of Subjectivism).
The central tenet is non-violence and respect towards all living beings. The three main principles of Jainism are ahimsa (non-violence), anekantavada (non-absolutism) and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). Followers of Jainism take five main vows: ahimsa (non-violence), satya (not lying), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (chastity) and aparigraha (non-attachment). Jain monks and nuns observe these vows absolutely whereas householders (śrāvakas) observe them within their practical limitations. Self-discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism. Notably, Mahatma Gandhi was greatly influenced by Jainism and adopted many Jain principles in his life.
The word "Jain" derives from the Sanskrit word jina (conqueror). A human being who has conquered all inner passions like attachment, desire, anger, pride, greed, etc. is called Jina. Followers of the path practiced and preached by the jinas are known as Jains. Parasparopagraho Jivanam ("the function of souls is to help one another") is the motto of Jainism.
Jains trace their history through a succession of twenty-four teachers and revivers of the Jain path known as Tirthankaras. In the current era, this started with Rishabhdeva and concluded with Mahavira. Jains believe that Jainism is eternal and while it may be forgotten, it will be revived from time to time.
Jainism is an ancient religion from India that teaches that the way to liberation and bliss is to live lives of harmlessness and renunciation.The essence of Jainism is concern for the welfare of every being in the universe and for the health of the universe itself. Jains believe that animals and plants, as well as human beings, contain living souls. Each of these souls is considered of equal value and should be treated with respect and compassion. Jains are strict vegetarians and live in a way that minimises their use of the world's resources. Jains believe in reincarnation and seek to attain ultimate liberation - which means escaping the continuous cycle of birth, death and rebirth so that the immortal soul lives for ever in a state of bliss. Liberation is achieved by eliminating all karma from the soul.
Jainism is a religion of self-help.There are no gods or spiritual beings that will help human beings.The three guiding
Mahavira is regarded as the man who gave Jainism its present-day form.
The texts containing the teachings of Mahavira are called the Agamas. Jainism has no priests. Its professional religious people are monks and nuns, who lead strict and ascetic lives.
Science and Technology-Ancient India
The contributions of ancient Indian linguists are widely acknowledged. Some of the big names are Panini , Patanjali, Bhartṛhari, Kātyāyana, Pingala, Śākaṭāyana, Shaunaka, Vararuchi and Yāska.
Pāṇini (Between 600-500 BCE) — made contributions to Philosophy of language and Sanskrit grammar. He is well known for Ashtadhyayi, a sutra-style treatise on Sanskrit grammar. Panini's theory of morphological analysis was more advanced than any equivalent Western theory before the 20th century. Ancient Indians have also contributed to the development of numerals as in "Hindu- Arabic Numerals". Pingala (Devanagari: पिङ्गल piṅgala) authored Chandaḥśāstra (also Chandaḥsūtra), the earliest known Sanskrit treatise on prosody. There are many more but for now we will summarize by saying that the ancient Indians were well ahead of their times.
Coinage dating as far back as the 8th Century B.C. shows the existence of Smelting technology in ancient India.Sthapatyaveda, also called Shilpa Veda, is the Upa Veda (supplementary branch) of Atharva Veda. Sthapatyaveda deals with planning, designing, and construction of houses, villages, and cities. Ayurveda a part of the Atharva veda deals with medical science as being divided into eight components e.g the first two are Kāyacikitsā: general medicine, medicine of the body, Kaumāra-bhṛtya: the treatment of children, paediatrics. Sushruta Samhita deals with Surgery . Charaka Samhita is a treatise on foundations of medicine. As before we will summarize by saying that the ancient Indians were well ahead of their times.
Speaking the truth and speaking well (subhashita) were encouraged. Hospitality was a virtue.
According to some scholars, the vedas did not encourage caste (they cite Yajurveda 26.2) . Both males and females of Higher castes were given education . The Hindu joint family can be traced to 3.30 of Atharva. According to some the king is elected by people or their representatives. c.300 B.C.E. Kauöiléya’s Ärthaçästra speaks of the science of government without which no science can start or survive. It talks of science of economics (Varta of agriculture, cattle and trade). The best king is the Raja-rishi, the sage king. (Philosopher King ?). The ArthaSastra dicusses several topics like training of the king, council of elders and a host of topics relevant to governance. It also deals with civil, criminal law and court system. It has extensive sections on spying, propaganda and information, war and peace (so much so that Kaitilya is dubbed Machiavelli).
Kapila (c. 500 BCE) founder of Sankhya philosophy.
God
There were many Gods Indra, Varuna, Agni, Sun etc.
Coinage dating as far back as the 8th Century B.C. shows the existence of Smelting technology in ancient India.Sthapatyaveda, also called Shilpa Veda, is the Upa Veda (supplementary branch) of Atharva Veda. Sthapatyaveda deals with planning, designing, and construction of houses, villages, and cities. Ayurveda a part of the Atharva veda deals with medical science as being divided into eight components e.g the first two are Kāyacikitsā: general medicine, medicine of the body, Kaumāra-bhṛtya: the treatment of children, paediatrics. Sushruta Samhita deals with Surgery . Charaka Samhita is a treatise on foundations of medicine. As before we will summarize by saying that the ancient Indians were well ahead of their times.
Views on Good life
In ancient India everything and anything was tied to spirituality for the Brahmins (the Intellectuals of the day). So Good life was simply life as prescribed by the scriptures like Ramayan or Mahabharat or Gita. This of course does not take into account Lokayata.
Views on Morality and Ethics
Once again we can sum up the views as expressed in Upanishads. Karma doctrine is presented in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. The Karma theory essentially says that ones reaps the consequences of what one does. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad recommends three virtues: self-restraint (दमः, Damah), charity (दानं, Daanam) and compassion for all life (दया, Daya). Morality in the sense of distinguishing between right and wrong is presented as moral dilemma in Gita.Speaking the truth and speaking well (subhashita) were encouraged. Hospitality was a virtue.
Political Organisation Views
According to some scholars, the vedas did not encourage caste (they cite Yajurveda 26.2) . Both males and females of Higher castes were given education . The Hindu joint family can be traced to 3.30 of Atharva. According to some the king is elected by people or their representatives. c.300 B.C.E. Kauöiléya’s Ärthaçästra speaks of the science of government without which no science can start or survive. It talks of science of economics (Varta of agriculture, cattle and trade). The best king is the Raja-rishi, the sage king. (Philosopher King ?). The ArthaSastra dicusses several topics like training of the king, council of elders and a host of topics relevant to governance. It also deals with civil, criminal law and court system. It has extensive sections on spying, propaganda and information, war and peace (so much so that Kaitilya is dubbed Machiavelli).Role of philosophy
The role of philosophy was to help the search for truth (Brahman the ultimate truth)Kapila (c. 500 BCE) founder of Sankhya philosophy.
God
There were many Gods Indra, Varuna, Agni, Sun etc.
1. http://www.philosophybasics.com/general_eastern_indian.html
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_philosophy
3. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pramana
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharata
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#Date_and_text
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharata
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#Date_and_text
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihadaranyaka_Upanishad
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas
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